What are some formal and/or informal logical fallacies that we have to pay attention to when we evaluate the results and/or conclusions of empirical research?
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Original Question
Scientists use both hypothetical-deductive method and induction when constructing theories, testing hypothesis, creating research designs, reporting research results, interpreting data etc. It is not a secret that by virtue of being humans they are also prone to different type of errors including logical fallacies.
Answers
1Wonderful question! There are many cognitive biases that should be considered (see this post for the difference). But when it comes to logical fallacies, here is a quick list that to me contains the major fallacies one needs to be cognizant of when evaluating research.
Appeal to Authority - Although the researcher may have great credentials, or the research may be published in a reputable journal, this does not require that the conclusions of the research be correct.
Argument from Fallacy - Researchers do commit fallacies, but that does not mean that their research is flawed or that their conclusions are incorrect. Many times, the fallacies committed are not integral to the results.
Argument from Ignorance - Example, we don't have enough data to show the X has any long-term adverse effects, therefore it does.
Biased Sample Fallacy - Poor research is based on poor sample selection.
Causal Reductionism - The media often is guilty of this by grossly misrepresenting research to point to one single cause, when life (especially in the social sciences) is much more complex.
And the mother of fallacies in this area:
Cherry Picking - If you look hard enough, you can find research supporting virtually anything. One off's are part of the scientific process. As someone who is interested in the facts, one must look at a broad sampling of the research in an area in a fair and unbiased way.
This was just the first three letters of the alphabet. There are many that apply to research.
Appeal to Authority - Although the researcher may have great credentials, or the research may be published in a reputable journal, this does not require that the conclusions of the research be correct.
Argument from Fallacy - Researchers do commit fallacies, but that does not mean that their research is flawed or that their conclusions are incorrect. Many times, the fallacies committed are not integral to the results.
Argument from Ignorance - Example, we don't have enough data to show the X has any long-term adverse effects, therefore it does.
Biased Sample Fallacy - Poor research is based on poor sample selection.
Causal Reductionism - The media often is guilty of this by grossly misrepresenting research to point to one single cause, when life (especially in the social sciences) is much more complex.
And the mother of fallacies in this area:
Cherry Picking - If you look hard enough, you can find research supporting virtually anything. One off's are part of the scientific process. As someone who is interested in the facts, one must look at a broad sampling of the research in an area in a fair and unbiased way.
This was just the first three letters of the alphabet. There are many that apply to research.
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