Accent Fallacy

When the meaning of a word, sentence, or entire idea is interpreted differently by changing where the accent falls.

accentus, emphasis fallacy, fallacy of accent, fallacy of prosody, misleading accent

When an attempt is made to apply a general rule to all situations when clearly there are exceptions to the rule. Simplistic rules or laws rarely take into consideration legitimate exceptions, and to ignore these exceptions is to bypass reason to preserve the illusion of a perfect law. People like simplicity and would often rather keep simplicity at the cost of rationality.

a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid, destroying the exception, dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter, dicto simpliciter, converse accident, reverse accident, fallacy of the general rule, sweeping generalization

Ad Fidentia

Attacking the person’s self-confidence in place of the argument or the evidence.

argumentum ad fidentia, against self-confidence

Ad Hoc Rescue

Very often we desperately want to be right and hold on to certain beliefs, despite any evidence presented to the contrary. As a result, we begin to make up excuses as to why our belief could still be true, and is still true, despite the fact that we have no real evidence for what we are making up.

making stuff up, MSU fallacy

Ad Hominem (Abusive)

Attacking the person making the argument, rather than the argument itself, when the attack on the person is completely irrelevant to the argument the person is making.

argumentum ad hominem, personal abuse, personal attacks, abusive fallacy, appeal to the person, damning the source, name calling, refutation by caricature, against the person, against the man

Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)

Suggesting that the person who is making the argument is biased or predisposed to take a particular stance, and therefore, the argument is necessarily invalid.

argumentum ad hominem, appeal to motive, appeal to personal interest, argument from motives, conflict of interest, faulty motives, naïve cynicism, questioning motives, vested interest

Ad Hominem (Guilt by Association)

When the source is viewed negatively because of its association with another person or group who is already viewed negatively.

argumentum ad hominem, association fallacy, bad company fallacy, company that you keep fallacy, they’re not like us fallacy, transfer fallacy

Ad Hominem (Tu quoque)

Claiming the argument is flawed by pointing out that the one making the argument is not acting consistently with the claims of the argument.

argumentum ad hominem tu quoque, appeal to hypocrisy, you too fallacy, hypocrisy, personal inconsistency

Affirmative Conclusion from a Negative Premise

The conclusion of a standard form categorical syllogism is affirmative, but at least one of the premises is negative. Any valid forms of categorical syllogisms that assert a negative premise must have a negative conclusion.

illicit negative, drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises, fallacy of negative premises

Affirming a Disjunct

Making the false assumption that when presented with an either/or possibility, that if one of the options is true that the other one must be false. This is when the “or” is not specifically defined as being exclusive.

the fallacy of the alternative disjunct, false exclusionary disjunct, affirming one disjunct, the fallacy of the alternative syllogism, asserting an alternative, improper disjunctive syllogism, fallacy of the disjunctive syllogism

Affirming the Consequent

An error in formal logic where if the consequent is said to be true, the antecedent is said to be true, as a result.

converse error, fallacy of the consequent, asserting the consequent, affirmation of the consequent

Alleged Certainty

Asserting a conclusion without evidence or premises, through a statement that makes the conclusion appear certain when, in fact, it is not.

assuming the conclusion

Alphabet Soup

The deliberate and excessive use of acronyms and abbreviations to appear more knowledgeable in the subject or confuse others.

Alternative Advance

When one is presented with just two choices, both of which are essentially the same, just worded differently. This technique is often used in sales. Fallacious reasoning would be committed by the person accepting the options as the only options, which would most likely be on a subconscious level since virtually anyone—if they thought about it—would recognize other options exist.

lose-lose situation

Amazing Familiarity

The argument contains information that seems impossible to have obtained—like it came from an omniscient author. This kind of writing/storytelling is characteristic of fiction, so when it is used in an argument it should cast doubt.

argument from omniscience, "how the hell can you possibly know that?"

Ambiguity Fallacy

When an unclear phrase with multiple definitions is used within the argument; therefore, does not support the conclusion. Some will say single words count for the ambiguity fallacy, which is really a specific form of a fallacy known as equivocation.

ambiguous assertion, amphiboly, amphibology, semantical ambiguity, vagueness

Anonymous Authority

When an unspecified source is used as evidence for the claim. This is commonly indicated by phrases such as “They say that...”, “It has been said...”, “I heard that...”, “Studies show...”, or generalized groups such as, “scientists say...”

appeal to anonymous authority

Anthropomorphism

The attributing of human characteristics and purposes to inanimate objects, animals, plants, or other natural phenomena, or to gods. This becomes a logical fallacy when used within the context of an argument.

personification

Appeal to Accomplishment

When the argument being made is sheltered from criticism based on the level of accomplishment of the one making the argument. A form of this fallacy also occurs when arguments are evaluated on the accomplishments, or success, of the person making the argument, rather than on the merits of the argument itself.

appeal to success

Appeal to Anger

When the emotions of anger, hatred, or rage are substituted for evidence in an argument.

appeal to hatred, loathing, appeal to outrage, etc.

Appeal to Authority

Insisting that a claim is true simply because a valid authority or expert on the issue said it was true, without any other supporting evidence offered. Also see the appeal to false authority.

argument from authority, ipse dixit, argumentum ad verecundiam

Appeal to Celebrity

Accepting a claim of a celebrity based on his or her celebrity status, not on the strength of the argument.

Appeal to Closure

Accepting evidence on the basis of wanting closure—or to be done with the issue. While the desire for closure is a real psychological phenomenon that does have an effect on the well-being of individuals, using "closure" as a reason for accepting evidence that would otherwise not be accepted, is fallacious.

appeal to justice

Appeal to Coincidence

Concluding that a result is due to chance when the evidence strongly suggests otherwise. The appeal to luck variation uses luck in place of coincidence or chance.

appeal to luck, appeal to bad luck, appeal to good luck

Appeal to Common Belief

When the claim that most or many people in general or of a particular group accept a belief as true is presented as evidence for the claim. Accepting another person’s belief, or many people’s beliefs, without demanding evidence as to why that person accepts the belief, is lazy thinking and a dangerous way to accept information.

argumentum ad populum, appeal to accepted belief, appeal to democracy, appeal to widespread belief, appeal to the masses, appeal to belief, appeal to the majority, argument by consensus, consensus fallacy, authority of the many, bandwagon fallacy, appeal to the number, argumentum ad numerum, argumentum consensus gentium, appeal to the mob, appeal to the gallery, consensus gentium, mob appeal, social conformance, value of community, vox populi

Appeal to Common Folk

In place of evidence, attempting to establish a connection to the audience based on being a “regular person” just like each of them. Then suggesting that your proposition is something that all common folk believe or should accept.

appeal to the common man

Appeal to Common Sense

Asserting that your conclusion or facts are just “common sense” when, in fact, they are not.We must argue as to why we believe something is common sense if there is any doubt that the belief is not common, rather than just asserting that it is.

Appeal to Complexity

Concluding that just because you don’t understand the argument, the argument is not true, flawed, or improbable. This is a specific form of the argument from ignorance.

Appeal to Consequences

Concluding that an idea or proposition is true or false because the consequences of it being true or false are desirable or undesirable. The fallacy lies in the fact that the desirability is not related to the truth value of the idea or proposition. This comes in two forms: the positive and negative.

argumentum ad consequentiam, appeal to consequences of a belief, argument to the consequences, argument from [the] consequences

Appeal to Definition

Using a dictionary’s limited definition of a term as evidence that term cannot have another meaning, expanded meaning, or even conflicting meaning.

appeal to the dictionary, victory by definition

Appeal to Desperation

Arguing that your conclusion, solution, or proposition is right based on the fact that something must be done, and your solution is "something."

Appeal to Emotion

This is the general category of many fallacies that use emotion in place of reason in order to attempt to win the argument. It is a type of manipulation used in place of valid logic.

appeal to pathos, argument by vehemence, playing on emotions, emotional appeal, for the children

Appeal to Equality

An assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality, where what exactly is "equal" is not made clear, and not supported by the argument.

appeal to egalitarianism, appeal to equity

Appeal to Extremes

Erroneously attempting to make a reasonable argument into an absurd one, by taking the argument to the extremes.

Appeal to Faith

This is an abandonment of reason in an argument and a call to faith, usually when reason clearly leads to disproving the conclusion of an argument. It is the assertion that one must have (the right kind of) faith in order to understand the argument.

Appeal to False Authority

Using an alleged authority as evidence in your argument when the authority is not really an authority on the facts relevant to the argument.

appeal to doubtful authority, appeal to dubious authority, appeal to improper authority, appeal to inappropriate authority, appeal to irrelevant authority, appeal to misplaced authority, appeal to unqualified authority, argument from false authority

Appeal to Fear

When fear, not based on evidence or reason, is being used as the primary motivator to get others to accept an idea, proposition, or conclusion.

argumentum in terrorem, argumentum ad metum, argument from adverse consequences, scare tactics

Appeal to Flattery

When an attempt is made to win support for an argument, not by the strength of the argument, but by using flattery on those whom you want to accept your argument. This fallacy is often the cause of people getting tricked into doing something they don’t really want to do.

apple polishing, wheel greasing, brown nosing, appeal to pride / argumentum ad superbiam, appeal to vanity

Appeal to Force

When force, coercion, or even a threat of force is used in place of a reason in an attempt to justify a conclusion.

argumentum ad baculum, argument to the cudgel, appeal to the stick

Appeal to Heaven

Asserting the conclusion must be accepted because it is the “will of God” or “the will of the gods”. In the mind of those committing the fallacy, and those allowing to pass as a valid reason, the will of God is not only knowable, but the person making the argument knows it, and no other reason is necessary.

deus vult, gott mit uns, manifest destiny, special covenant

Master the "Rules of Reason" for Making and Evaluating Claims

Claims are constantly being made, many of which are confusing, ambiguous, too general to be of value, exaggerated, unfalsifiable, and suggest a dichotomy when no such dichotomy exists. Good critical thinking requires a thorough understanding of the claim before attempting to determine its veracity. Good communication requires the ability to make clear, precise, explicit claims, or “strong” claims. The rules of reason in this book provide the framework for obtaining this understanding and ability.

This book / online course is about the the eleven rules of reason for making and evaluating claims. Each covered in detail in the book.

Take the Online Course